homeschool ABC

I am an enthusiast for homeschooling, so I think I'd better preface my essay. Like homebirth or family bed or any other aspect of parenting, it is sometimes hard to talk about homeschooling without the speaker sounding as if she thinks school is wrong or teachers are bad or someone who homeschools differently is wrong. So let me just go on record right now as saying that I personally know the majority of teachers are dedicated, caring professionals. And homeschooling, like homebirth, should only be attempted by someone who is convinced that she wants to and that it would be best for her and her family. It is not for every parent or for every child. So now, when I get a little zealous later in my talk, you'll remember I said this and forgive me, right? Because I will get zealous - I'm a zealot and I tend to soapbox in my speeches. I love homeschooling and I think it's up there with family bed: it won't hurt anyone to try it, and you just might find that you like it and your family runs along much more smoothly. Then again, you might hate it and have to put the kids back in school for their safety and your sanity, right?

Defining Homeschool

So, what is homeschool? It's easier to say what it is not: Homeschooling is not school. By this I mean that there is no reason for a homeschool to attempt to achieve school hours, school atmosphere, school scheduling, or schoolish modes of learning. School is an institution, a very big institution, and a majority of what happens in school is dictated by its size and by the inherent nature of institutions. You are not an institution, you are not even a teacher; you are a parent. Speaking of teachers, I also cannot emphasize strongly enough that I have nothing against the profession. Certainly there are a few bad teachers, but the vast majority are hard working, child-loving, dedicated professionals. Both my parents and my sister are teachers, and I myself have a degree in elementary education, so I had better not have anything against the teaching profession!

However, that is not to say that I believe a teacher can teach your child better than you can. Especially in the lower grades (but even up through high school and in specialized subjects), a parent can often do a better job than a teacher who must deal with 29 other children of varying abilities and interest levels while juggling grading and administrative paperwork and hassling parents and unruly students at the same time. Having a degree in elementary education gives me a certain edge over other mothers who feel they cannot homeschool because they don't have formal training. I hear it frequently: "Well, you have a degree, so of course you can teach your children! I don't, how could I teach mine?" Let me tell you exactly what my "edge" consists of: I know that education students in college are not taught what to teach. They are taught how to teach large groups. Let me repeat that: Education students are not given the content to transfer to your children in their classroom. They are assumed to know what they are supposed to teach, or assumed to be capable of getting it out of the textbook before the subject comes up in class. So, the classroom teacher has nothing on you, the teaching parent, when it comes to knowing the content knowledge to pass on. 

"But," I hear, "you know how to teach it!" Well, no, not really. We education students were taught how to manage large groups of children who don't want to be doing what we want them to do. We were taught cute little tricks to get them to line up straight, methods for setting up elaborate learning centers to catch their attention, and disciplinary techniques for large groups. We were taught about child development and learning styles and teaching styles (these are helpful things for any teacher to know, but most of us know them intuitively about our own children; if you don't there are plenty of books to help you pick them up!). We education students didn't really learn how to teach until we actually started teaching. The same thing is true for teaching parents, and you have a big advantage over the teachers: you have already been teaching these particular children since birth and know them pretty well, and you aren't distracted by having to manage a hoard of other children at the same time.

Types of Homeschoools

There are probably as many types of homeschools as there are homeschooling families. If you want to homeschool you can do it just about any way you want and with as much or little structure and support as you want; and you'll probably be able to find like-minded homeschoolers in your community or an internet community or mailing list.

adapted from The Pennsylvania Home Education Handbook, Diana Baseman

Homeschools run the gamut. There are highly structured classrooms where the kids leave the house in the morning through the back door and knock at the front door, greeting their mother as "Mrs. Smith" for the duration of their "in school" hours (usually 4, 5, or 6 hours solid); then leave through the front door and come home through the back door to "mom." Then there are unschoolers so laid back and noncoercive that they refuse to even suggest to their children that they might want to look between the covers of a book. The vast majority of homeschooling families fall somewhere comfortably between these two extremes.

Teacher Structured

Many homeschoolers, especially those just starting out, decide to go with prepackaged curricula . . . and there is a curriculum to suit just about everyone. There are Christian curricula, humanist curricula, and those that don't have a particular religious viewpoint. You can enroll your child in an umbrella school that will send you a complete packaged curriculum and tests they score for you and keep track of for you. Most just sell you the curriculum and teacher manuals and let you keep your own records. You can put together your own curriculum using math from one provider and phonics from another and history from another. You can create your own curriculum from scratch using libraries and other resources. The possibilities are limitless. Do what suits your children and family best.

I do have to voice one warning here. It is easy to try to do too much. You'll know you are biting off too much to chew when you don't enjoy your children, when they hate "school at home," and you're considering dragging them to the principal's office for enrollment sometime before lunch today. Not everyone will agree with my opinion, but I'm going to say it anyway: This commonly occurs because the parent is trying to copy public school and do things the way public school does them. Let me say again: There is no good reason to sit your child down for six hours a day just because that's what schools do. Listen, if your child had some long-term illness and had to be tutored at home, the school would send out a tutor for about two to four hours a week, and consider that a perfectly adequate instruction period for your child to pick up what the others were getting all day every day! You have to understand how much of school time is administrative. Each individual student may get two to ten minutes a day in personal contact with a teacher. The teaching part of school does not take six hours a day. In the early grades, it can be accomplished in six hours a week, maximum. Really.

Mixed Structure

Some choose to homeschool in the early years but start their children in school later. Third, fourth, and fifth grades are popular times to start school (when you can trust them not to wet their pants at school or pick their noses in public or lose their way if they have to walk home - providing you've done your job right, that is!); others keep their children out until high school. Of these families, some will teach their children more or less formally while they have them at home, and others will completely unschool, trusting in their innate ability to catch up when started in the correct age group. (Again, see Moore's books for studies on this topic.)

Learner Structured

Ever heard the term unschooling? Its definition has changed slightly over the years. John Holt first used it to refer to any homeschooling; but now homeschooling is the umbrella term and unschooling defines a specific type (untype?) of homeschooling. Unschoolers believe that children learn best at their own pace and with their own interests, and that real life is the best teacher of all. Most unschooling parents consider themselves to be facilitators of their child's learning. They work to make learning opportunities available to the child, but don't push unit studies or lessons. They tend to believe that true learning takes place when the child is cognitively ready and develops a personal interest in the subject at hand. Most of them don't even worry (or try not to) when their 8 or 9 or 10 year old is not reading yet. They know that there is plenty of evidence that when a child has both ability and interest, learning comes quickly and easily and often seemingly overnight. (See Raymond Moore's books in the Resource list. Also read some of the wonderful essays at unschooling.com!)

This is not to say that all unschoolers do (or don't do) exactly the same thing. Many find that their children choose to follow a particular subject through a textbook or to enroll in a high school or community college class. Since this is the student's choice, it is respected. Many unschoolers will use a curriculum loosely - as something the parent uses to get ideas from, rather than as a sit-down academic course. Some curricula lend themselves to this better than others.

Changing Structure

Many homeschoolers go from having a rigid school-at-home structure in the beginning to loosening up into more relaxed atmosphere after a year or two, or just a semester or two. They relax because they find that their children not only do as well with less structure, they often do better. Better in terms of enthusiasm, learning outcomes, retention of knowledge, eagerness to explore. And yes, a few go the other direction, to more structure. (But not nearly as many!) That's the beauty of homeschooling. You do what suits you and your family - and if it doesn't work, change it! You can change at the end of the year, at the end of the semester, at the end of the month, week, day, hour, or minute. You are the expert on your child, and you know if he is learning or not, if she is enjoying herself or hating it. Find something you all enjoy, and if you quit enjoying it, change again!

Always remember: You know your children best! You are the expert! Take control of
your children's education! And then . . . Relax!   ~ Mary Hood ~

Choosing Structure

How do you decide what will work best for your family? Well, this is where we get into a little bit of prejudice on my part. A lot of first-time homeschoolers go whole hog: a full curriculum with a complete battery of tests and grades and so forth. May I humbly suggest, instead of trying to duplicate school at home, you try to enhance your home environment in ways conducive to education without going for all the schoolish stuff.

What is most important and valuable about the home as a base for children's growth into the world
is not that it is a better school than the schools, but that it isn't a school at all.   ~ John Holt ~

Think of it this way: Instead of looking at the school and deciding what must be pared down in order to have school-at-home, look at your home and decide what you need to add to ensure that your child acquires a lifelong love of learning and a solid base of knowledge. I know this is hard to do and can be very scary. After all, what if you mess up? Why should your children pay for your mistakes? What if you leave - horrors! - gaps in their education?!? Well, guess what? No matter who teaches your children, there will be gaps. Gaps are inevitable. And as Karen Gibson points out in her excellent article, Gaps Are Good!

Remember our definition of homeschooling? Homeschooling is not school. This seems obvious, but really think about it; there are a lot of far-reaching implications. Here's one: Your child does not have to learn to read at age six, or to do simple addition and subtraction at age seven, or to do any number of other things on the school's schedule.

There is no reason to believe that all children will learn [to read] at exactly 6.5 years of age, during
the first grade, other than the convenience of the teacher.   ~ Mary Hood ~

Actually, this is where another benefit of having a background in education comes in handy. Several required educator classes deal with child development, and one of the things really emphasized in those classes is the no-brainer that all children develop at different rates. The fun part came when we left that class to go to Elementary Reading, where we were shown how to put all of our thirty children on the same learn-to-read schedule. Then we were told what to do when some of them fell behind, as they inevitably would because they weren't ready, and all the things we should do to boost their self-esteem which would falter because they were behind their classmates. Then there was the debate about whether to "hold back" a child who was so far behind classmates in reading, or whether that would be worse.

When any learning or developmental process is laid out in steps, the typical American reaction
is to try to move children through the steps earlier and faster. Our ambitious,
achievement-oriented culture seems to demand this. But there are other
considerations besides moving up the steps.   ~ Ruth Beechick ~

The simple truth is, if children are left alone to develop at their own paces and not forced to try to learn something before their brains are cognitively ready for that particular exercise, we would avoid a lot of heartache on everyone's part. A child who is not cognitively ready to learn to read, if forced to sit through reading instruction that other children are absorbing just fine, will begin to think, There is something wrong with me. I am stupid. I can't read. Just as bad, his parents think the same thing about their precious child. To top it off, it goes into his school record where next year's teacher will read all about it before she even meets this individual child. Then, two or three years later, when his brain has - on its own wise timing - developed enough to allow his senses to work together in such a way as to make reading possible for him, he has a mental block about it. This child will probably never learn to read with any real fluency, and it is not his fault. It is the fault of the institutional setting forcing all the children to "learn" at the same rate, whether they are ready or not. Incidentally, the same thing goes for mathematics or any other instruction.

Learning disorders are probably 'real' if the parents notice specific problems themselves
when the children are babies or preschoolers. 'Disabilities' that first become noticeable
after the children are placed in school have probably been caused by the [institutional]
setting and are likely to disappear if the children are brought back home.   ~ Mary Hood ~

Choosing Curricula

Now, this topic is too big to cover. Get Mary Pride's Big Book of Home Learning (frequently updated and widely available used) and study it. But here's my best advice: don't be too quick to buy! After you've laid out your money and started using a curriculum, don't keep using it if it's not working for your family. I know, you blew the budget on this wonderful, fancy-schmancy, bells-and-whistles curriculum, but if you hate it or your kids hate it; if it causes more struggles than potty training and bedtime and meals combined; if your child tries and tries and just doesn't get it - please, chuck the curriculum. There are plenty of places to sell used curricula online or locally and get some of your money back, but if it's not working don't keep using it. And remember, Gaps are Good.

It is the child you are teaching, not the book. Bend the book, or find another;
make the studies fit the child.   ~ Ruth Beechick ~

The Test Question

Okay, you've got your curriculum; chosen your structure. What about testing? What about grades?

Well, really, what about them? Testing is so the teacher will know exactly what the student knows (or at least how well the student tests). Grades are so the students know where they stand with respect to other students. If you are teaching your child one-on-one (or even one-on-two or -three or more), you already should have a pretty good idea of what she knows. If you live in a state that requires it, do it. If you don't, rejoice. If you need a "paper trail" in case of questions (and this is not a bad idea), arrange for once-a-year testing (AIMS tests or other placement tests) - you'll be able to show your mother-in-law how well her grandchild is doing.

But what about accountability? Shouldn't the parent have to prove that the child is learning at a set rate with schooled children? If the child is failing, shouldn't he be put back in school? Well . . . what if the child is failing public school; do you force the parents to homeschool? Seriously, far more children (proportionately) fail in public schools, and children who fail in homeschools fail for the same reason: the teacher or parent is more tuned in to the schedule of a preset curriculum than the child's developmental needs. The big difference is, in public school the teacher has an excuse for paying more attention to the curriculum than the child. The Resource list below gives five (among the many) research studies showing categorically that homeschooled children do as well as or better than their schooled peers academically.

The best evidence of a good home-based education is not the extent to which a particular interest
or talent has been developed - whether it is writing, music, farming, mechanics, or anything else -
but the extent to which the children are still curious and alert, their desire to explore and learn,
their ability to think and evaluate.   ~ Donn Reed ~

The Socialization Question

This is the question that everyone asks, isn't it? It has been asked and answered so often, I'm just going to quote others here. Also, please go read The Valedictorian Who Failed Socialization.

How will my child learn to get along in the world?

This is the question homeschoolers often grimace about and call the "S" question (socialization). The real concern, it seems, is whether homeschooled children will be able to function out in the world if they don't have the experiences schooled children have.

Think for a moment about what schools really do. They classify and segregate children by age and ability; reinforce class, gender, and racial prejudice; and strip from children the right to any real interaction or private life. Socialization, in this respect, becomes submitting one's will to that of the group (or person in charge). This is not the basis for healthy relationships. Home-educated children, because they spend so much of their time out in the real world, generally are able to communicate well with both adults and children and to have friends of all ages. They choose to spend time with others because they enjoy their company or have a similar interest - just like adults.

from the FAQ at Home Education Magazine online

What about the social life of kids who learn at home?

There are many ways for homeschoolers to meet other kids. Studies have shown that homeschoolers have a more positive self-concept than their schooled peers. They are more likely to have friends of different ages and to be free of the cliqueish, exclusive behavior so common in school. Here are just some of the ways that homeschoolers meet and socialize with other young people: In the neighborhood, in church, in Scouts, in 4-H, through community sports teams, in community theatre, in music or dance or gymnastics or art classes, through participation in some school activities, through homeschool support groups and activity clubs.

A teenage girl who left school and became a homeschooler wrote to Growing Without Schooling, "I think that homeschooling has allowed me to develop my social skills a lot more than school did." A mother told us about a local group for teenage homeschoolers, in which the kids have gone to museums, studied biology together, and done all sorts of other activities. She said, "The kids are meeting people from many different backgrounds, with many different kinds of life experiences, and the friendships really cross those lines." Homeschooling does not make kids socially deprived.

from Growing Without Schooling

Do you really want them socialized by institutions anyway?

Because public school students remain clumped with their age peers, virtually to the exclusion of any other age group, the whole of their public school experience will actually serve to inculcate a preference for, and ultimately a dependency on, their age-peers for social interaction. Although surrounded by literally hundreds of their fellows, public students live an isolated existence, i.e., isolated with their age-peers away from society, and as a result, public school age-peer groups essentially socialize themselves, developing value patterns distinct from, and often totally at odds with, the remainder of society. It is no coincidence that the history of America in the 20th century, the century of the pandemic public school, is littered with peer groups separated from the rest of society (1920s - flappers; 1930s - socialists; 1940s - beatniks; 1950s - greasers; 1960s - hippies; 1970s - disco; 1980s - punkers). We have created a system of "education" which virtually guarantees that the values of parents will not be transmitted to their children.

Socialization in Practice, TPA Newsletter

The Great Phonics Debate

Another one that's way too involved to go into here, but let me just say this. All good readers use phonics, but all good readers do not necessarily receive explicit phonics instruction. There are plenty of children who are read to frequently at home who teach themselves to read without a single word of phonics or any other kind of instruction from anyone; the opposite is not true. Children who do not experience meaningful text will not learn to extract meaning from text, no matter how many phonemes and morphemes and diphthongs they can recite back by rote on tests. Phonics is a decoding tool - a very useful tool, but still only a single tool to use in reading. Give it its due, use it where it is needed, but read to your children if you want them to learn to read. For a really well-balanced view of the place of phonics and other elements of reading success, read Teach a Child to Read Using Children's Literature: Combining Story Reading, Phonics, and Writing to Promote Reading Success, by Mark Thogmartin. And for a good, simple, cheap, and easy phonics curriculum, see my review of Teach America to Read and Spell.

Legalities & Support Groups

There is a support group out there for you - if not physically, then electronically. There are field trip groups, PE groups, 4-H groups, teaching exchange groups (where the children get together with one mom for science and another mom for art), unschooling groups, groups that use the same curriculum - you name it. If they don't meet in the park you can find them in a chat room, discussion board, or email list. Look for online support groups on some of the sites listed in Resources.

One Last Thought

Like any parent or teacher, I have a hundred opportunities each day to make a child think less of himself,
to weaken his spirit, and to needlessly obstruct his freedom of movement and thought. The challenge
for me is to avoid these opportunities whenever possible by doing more listening than talking
and by sharing ideas instead of dispensing knowledge.   ~ Earl Stevens ~ Refining Basics 

Resources

Space and time constraints severely limit the resources I can list here, so I'll just pick the most important (aka my favorites) and the ones that will point to even more resources. Due to space, resources mentioned above are not listed again here.

John Holt

John Holt is widely considered to be the father of the homeschooling movement. Read anything you can lay your hands on.

Teach Your Own - Holt's "how to" book is THE book to read if you're considering homeschooling. The what and how of daily living and learning with your children.

How Children Fail and How Children Learn - These two classic books look at how much of what is done in school prevents, rather than encourages, real learning, and explores how young children's minds work. This loving and insightful look challenges traditional assumptions.

Learning All the Time - Demonstrates that children, without being coerced or manipulated, can and do pick up "the basics" from the world around them and suggests simple ways anyone can give children the slight assistance they may need to learn. Especially recommended for parents of preschool-age children.

What Do I Do Monday? - Holt's classic answer to teachers who asked, "How can I put all your ideas into practice myself, with my kids?" Holt wrote that of all his books, he felt that this was the one homeschoolers would find most practical.

Growing Without Schooling - GWS is the website that keeps John Holt's ideas alive. The newsletter is not published any longer, but they do have back issues and a ton of other resources here.

Raymond and Dorothy Moore

If Holt is the father of homeschooling, the Moores are known as the grandparents of the movement.

Better Late Than Early and School Can Wait - Both of these amazing, must-read books are about exactly what the titles suggest: It is better for your child to start formal academic instruction later than normal. There is a wealth of hard research and anecdotal information here: from the educator, the neurophysiologist, the developmental psychologist, the child psychiatrist, and sociologist, the parent, and much more. Children who receive early academic instruction often have a brief advantage over others when they begin school; but the advantage is quickly lost and the end result is often burnout for the child. On the other hand, study after study shows that a child who is kept out of school and given no formal academic instruction until age 8 or 9, then placed with age peers in the 3rd or 4th grade, will catch up with them by Christmas and be ahead by the end of the year.

The Successful Homeschool Family Handbook: A Creative and Stress-free Approach to Homeschooling - Choose a curriculum that really works for you and your children; avoid student resentment and parent burnout; target your child's interest and motivation; help your child excel in educational goals, including standardized tests; understand how a child's developmental stages contribute to learning; and see the big picture of family and society in the learning process.

Personal Accounts

Anything School Can Do YOU Can Do Better by Máire Mullarney (Arlen House, Dublin) - The story of a family who learned at home in Ireland.

Better Than School: One Family's Declaration of Independence, by Nancy Wallace - This amazing account of a family that unschooled their two children is one I read every few years to inspire myself. John Holt shows up in the book, as he was a family friend; and he wrote the introduction.

Homeschooling for Excellence by David and Micki Colfax - This California family homeschooled three of their four boys into Harvard (the fourth was only 13 at press time); the oldest graduated with high honors and a Fulbright fellowship.

Philosophy and How-To Books

Is Public Education Necessary? by Samuel L. Blumenfeld - This detailed history of the public school movement shows the extremely high literacy rates in the US before public schools, and the agenda of the people who pushed to implement mandatory public schools nationally.

The Art of Education by Linda Dobson - What happened to American education, why, and what families can do to protect their children. Family-centered education provides a common sense approach to teaching, learning, and living with each other as families and in communities.

The Homeschool Reader edited by Mark and Helen Hegener - One of the best books with which to start your homeschooling research. The nuts and bolts of homeschooling presented by the real experts, homeschoolers themselves.

The Home School Source Book by Donn Reed - A complete guide to homeschooling, telling the author's story with valuable insight into the decisions they made while giving their 4 children a liberal arts education. The second part is a comprehensive homeschooling resources and materials catalog.

The Relaxed Home School by Mary Hood - A more "user friendly" approach to homeschooling for parents who have created a general framework for effective learning within which "they have placed a supreme emphasis on the need for flexibility, balance, and mutual respect."

The Teenage Liberation Handbook: How to Quit School and Get a Real Life and Education by Grace Llewellyn - A complete guide for young people who want to try real learning outside the public school system, with general guidelines for getting out of school, finding meaningful work opportunities, and dozens of examples of teens who are already learning on their own. A practical and encouraging handbook for anyone wanting more control over his own education.

The Three R's by Ruth Beechick - This set of three helpful booklets focuses on teaching kindergarten through the third grade, utilizing "real" books, practical exercises, and common sense applications for reading, language, and arithmetic without relying on an expensive curriculum.

You CAN Teach Your Child Successfully by Ruth Beechick - A solid foundation for teaching grades 4-8, based upon her experience as a teacher, curriculum developer, and professor of education. The three Rs are covered thoroughly, as well as history, social studies, science, health, music, art, and others.

Online

There are just tons of online resources for homeschooling. See basic homeschool resources for a small beginning.

Supporting Research

For evidence that homeschoolers do as well as or better than their schooled peers academically

Greene, S. (1985) Home study in Alaska: A profile of K-12 students enrolled in the Alaska Centralized Correspondence Study. Resources in Education. (ERIC document Reproduction Service No. ED 255 494)

Rakestraw, J. (1987) An Analysis of Home Schooling for Elementary School-age Children in Alabama. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.

Ray, B.D. & Wartes, J. (1991) Academic Task and Socializing. In J. Van Galen and M.A Pittman (Eds.) Home Schooling: Political, Historical, and Pedagogical Perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Richman, Howard. (1988) Homeschoolers Score Higher - A Replicable Result. (available from Pennsylvania Homeschoolers, RD 2, Box 117, Kittanning PA 16201)

Wartes, J. (1990). The Relationship of Selected Input Variables to Academic Achievement Among Washington's Homeschoolers, [16109 NE 169th Place,] Woodinville, WA: Washington Homeschool Research Project.

For evidence that homeschoolers are not deprived of social skills or experiences

Delahooke, M.M. (1986). Home educated children's social/emotional adjustment and academic achievement: a comparative study. Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 475A.

Montgomery, L. (1989). The effect of home schooling on the leadership skills of home schooled students. Home School Researcher, Vol. 5 (1), 1-10.

Taylor, J.W. (1986). Self-concept in homeschooling children. Doctoral dissertation, Andrews Univ., Berrien Springs, MI.

For evidence that homeschooling parents do not need to be certified teachers to help their children learn

Rakestraw, J. (1987). An Analysis of Home Schooling for Elementary School-age Children in Alabama. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.

Ray, B. (1990). A Nationwide Study of Home Education: Family Characteristics, Legal Matters, and Student Achievement. The National Home Education Research Institute. P.O. Box 13939 Salem, Oregon 97309

Wartes, J. (1990). The Relationship of Selected Input Variables to Academic Achievement Among Washington's Homeschoolers, [16109 NE 169th Place,] Woodinville, WA: Washington Homeschool Research Project.

For the claim that the number of homeschoolers is increasing in the United States

Lines, P. (1987). An Overview of Home Instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, March 1987.

Lines, P. (1990). Home Instruction: Characteristics, Size and Growth. In Home Schooling: Political, Historical, and Pedagogical Perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.

For the claim that homeschoolers encounter no special difficulty in getting into college or finding employment

Barnaby, L.(1984). American university admission requirements for home schooled applicants, in 1984. Doctoral dissertation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(3), 798A.

Webb, J. (1989). The Outcomes of Home-based Education: Employment and Other Issues. Educational Review, 41(2).

Copyright (c) 2002 Carma Paden. All rights reserved. No portion may be reproduced in any fashion without express permission.

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